Came to know

* DNA is a molecule that all living organisms carry  in    every cell in their body.

* DNA is a “code” that’s holds the detailed instructions for the building of the organism.

* In humans,this information is laid out in long linear strands of DNA in the nucleus.

  *Rather than being one long DNA strand ,we have DNA in the form of many smaller ,more manageable pieces called chromosomes. 

* Humans have three billion base pairs divided into two copies 23 chromosomes ( one from mother and one from our father) with six billion base pairs in every cell. 

* Chromosomes influence everything from a person’s hair colour to susceptibility to disease.

 * For exam chromosome 1 contains the gene that controls whether you are susceptible to some forms of malaria while chromosome 16 has a gene that influences hair colour.

* Some people have a mission chromosome,or any other mutation,which can cause disorders.

      DNA PROFILINGdna profiling or DNA fingerprinting is creation of biometric database compromising DNA infoy of individuals.What is genome sequencing ?

1. The full set of DNA present in an individual organism is called it’s genome. 

2. DNA sequencing is a process for determining the linear order of nucleotide bases in DNA.

3. Sequencing a gene is like reading a book one letter at a time to look for any spelling mistakes

4. Mapping out a person’s entire genetic code, or genome or in other words reading each of the 3 billion base pairs that make up a person’s genetic code is called genome sequencing.

5. By creating a genome sequence we will be able to test specific genes to detect the presence of mutations associated with genetic disorders.

6. Within the next few years , experts expect the turnaround time to improve and the cost to drop so much that analyzing a person’s genome will be more expensive then zeroing in on just one gene

Gene therapy ?
*Gene therapy involves removal of defective stem cells from the patients bone marrow. *The stem cells so removed are genetically modified for correction.* The genetically modified cells are infused back in the bone.* The corrected stem cells in the marrow develope healthy blood cells.

Three parent baby technique ?  A. Apart from receiving the usual “NUCLEAR” DNA from its mother and father,the embryo would also include a small amount of healthy mitochondrial DNA from a woman donor.B. This resorted to when the actual mother is suffering from an incurable mitochondrial diseases. C. The technique involves the faulty mitochondrial DNA from the actual mother and necleus from the mother’s egg and the resultant egg fertilizes with the sperm cell of the father outside the body ( in vitro).

In vivo gene editing 1. Recently gene editing was carried out inside the human body (in vivo)for the 1 at time to treat Hunter’s syndrome.2. The zinc finger nucleases ( ZNF) technique was used to insert the corrective gene in the DNA of the patient through intravenous therapy. 

What is CrispR cas9 ?• it is the revolutionary gene editing technique.• short for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats”.•CRISPR USES  an enzyme called cas9 to cut strands of DNA at perfectly targeted locations and insert new genetic material into gap.•crispR is a replica of the natural process  when a virus indents bacterium.• the bacterium has evolved the CRISPR/Cas9 system adaptive immune system.

Gm crops ?Transgenic (GM) plants are those that have been genetically modified using recombinant DNA technology.gentic modification is done to confer a particular trait to the plant with one of the the following properties. Increased yield of a crop. Increased nutritional content of a crop.Developing resistant to .

1.abiotic stresses like temperature, salinity or herbicide resistant

.2.Biotic stresses like insect resistant crops.

*As atom is made up of a nucleus ( with protons and neutrons) and electrons revolving around the nucleus.

* The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The number of protons (z) of an element. While  the term atomic deals with 10^(-10)m, the term nuclear deals with 10^(-15)m.

* The voly of an atom is about 1015 orders of magnitude larger than the volume of a nucleus.it is the electrons that are responsible for the chemical behaviour of atoms, and which identify the various chemical elements.

*The total number of protons and neutrons , called nucleons is called the atomic number number (A).

*Atoms such as 1H,2H Whose nuclei contain the same number of protons but different number of neutrons (different A) are known as isotopes. Uranium,fir instance, has three isotopes occuring in nature -238,235U and 234 U.hydrogen has types of isotopes , protium, deuterium and tritium.

NUCLEAR FUELA good nuclear fuel is essential for sustainability of a nuclear power plant. A nuclear fuel is generally sustains a chain reaction, has a very high chance of fission when bombarded with neutrons, enabling it to compensate to unsuccessful fissions,has a reasonable half life and is available ins sustainable quantities.THE URANIUM-235 is a suitable candidate for a nuclear fuel, however it is not available in abundant quantities across the world.  

    TYPES OF FUEL  Fissionable fuel consists of isotopes that are capable of undergoing nuclear fission . Typical fissionable materials:232 Th,233U,238Pu, 241pu. 

Fertile material are isotopes that are non fissionable by neutrons,but can be  converted into fissible isotopes (after neutron absorption and subsequent nuclear decay) ,Th-232 ( thorium) is a fertile isotopes ,th 232 cannot be fissioned by a fast moving neutron   Th-232 cannot be fissioned by a fast moving neutron.

Th-232 is not capable neutrons produced by fission of 238 U have lower energies than original neutron. Upon capturing a neutron th-232 converts to U-233 which is fissionable. Typical fissible materials: 235U, 233Pu, 239,pu,241 Pu.

Fissible material are fissionable isotopes that are capable of undergoing nuclear fission . Typical fertile materials:238U,232Th. 

     NUCLEAR ENRICHMENT

 1. To ensure that the nuclear reaction is sustainable ,a nuclear reactor uses such fuel that has a high probability of fission when bombarded by fast moving neutron. To ensure this ,a process called enrichment is carried out.

 2. The process of increasing the concentration of one isotopes relative to another is called “enrichment”.

3. Natural occuring uranium contains 0.72% of the U-235 isotope.the remaining 99.28,% is the u-238which is fertile isotope

4. The radioactive half life for a given radioisotope is the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any sample to undergo radioactive deacy.after two lives ,there will be one fourth the original sample,after three half-lives one eighth the original sample ,and so forth.

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Good company in a journey makes the way seem shorter. — Izaak Walton